Results chapter (MICROBIOLOGY specialists only) Essay

Results chapter (MICROBIOLOGY specialists only) - Essay Example Each T-cell receptor has a specific unique peptide: Major Histocompatibility Complex with them. The Spleen contains lymphocytes and another type of white blood cells called Macrophages. Thus spleen is also the best source of lymphocytes. The T-cells are usually divided into two major Subsets- T Helper cells and T-Killer cells. The T-helper cells are called as CD4+ cells and T-killer cells are called as CD8+ cells. Early growth response gene – 2, a zinc finger transcription factor is expressed in the CD44 cells. It also controls their activation and proliferation. In the absence of this EGR gene -2 at CD44high + cells, and not CD44low + cells, the T cells were found to be hyper reactive and hyperproliferative in vivo. (Zhu et. al, 2008) In this experiment, two types of cells were used for FACS research, Wild type and EGR-2 Transgenic mice. The cells extracted from the spleen are separated for the lymphocytes and then mixed with 1 ÃŽ ¼l of the antibodies. The antibodies used are CD3 P (Phycoerythrin)+CD4 F(Fluorescein), CD3 P+CD8 F, CD4 F+CD8 P. (labtestsonline.org, 2009). The number of the positive cells were calculated for the two types and compared with each other. The wild type and the EGR-transgenic mice spleenocytes were stained with CD4 (FITC SL) + CD8 (PE SL). The results have shown that the wild type mice has the normal count. The CD4 positive cells are greater than the CD8 cells normally. In transgenic mice, the CD4 and CD8 cells counts are nearly the same. The EGR-Transgenic mice are found to have greater CD8 cells than the wild type. The wild type and the EGR-transgenic mice spleenocytes were stained with CD3 (PE SL) + CD4 (FITC SL). The results indicate that There was no characteristic difference in the CD3 positive cells in both wild type and EGR2. Whereas the CD4 positive cell count was nearly double in the wild type when compared to the EGR2 Tr. The staining of all the three type spleenocytes with CD4 FITC +CD3 PE, has showed that

Market entry strategy of retailer in China - The case of Walmart Dissertation

Market entry strategy of retailer in China - The case of Walmart - Dissertation Example This area of research was of immense interest because global chain had achieved success and failures in different markets. To evaluate the entry mode choice Wal-Mart was selected for this study, being the largest global retailer. China was selected as the location because of the phenomenal economic growth in recent decades and the high consumer base, both of which have been attracting foreign retailers. Thus, three objectives were set at the beginning of the study. All the three objectives have been achieved based on a study with qualitative data and qualitative analysis. The study finds that both push and pull factors motivated Wal-Mart to entre China. Its home market was saturated and Wal-Mart was driven by the sheer size of China’s consumer base. Since the outcome of any foreign venture depends upon the initial entry mode, Wal-Mart’s entry mode has been evaluated. The study finds that during the time that Wal-Mart entered China it had no alternative but to enter into joint venture but it appears that Wal-Mart did not assess several factors before entering the market. For instance, it did not conduct a proper research on the partner characteristics and the expected synergies; it did not take into account the local business environment, the consumer characteristics and the government regulations. ... While the timing of the entry was perfect (weak retail sector and high potential in China), Wal-Mart tried to impose its home market strategies which did not work in the Chinese business environment. Wal-Mart attempted standardizing operations across countries but this is not feasible in a retail environment. The entry choice of Wal-Mart into China does not conform to the theories governing entry mode choice. This suggests that no single entry mode can be generalized to be the right entry mode. Literature on the subject amply suggests that different factors influence the entry mode choice. This study confirms that different factors have to be taken into account when evaluating the entry mode, without which the expected synergies may not be achieved. The outcome of this study is expected to benefit the retailers that plan expansion into emerging economies. Based on the limitations, the study recommends other areas of research on the subject. Contents Chapter I Introduction 1 1.1 Backg round – Globalization and Retail Sector 1 1.2 China’s Retail Sector 2 1.3 International Retailers’ Presence in China 3 1.4 Wal-Mart in China 4 1.5 International Market Entry Strategy 5 1.6 Rationale for Research 5 1.7 Research Aims and Objectives 7 1.8 Structure of the Study 8 Chapter II Literature Review 10 2.1 Chapter Overview 10 2.2 Motives for Internationalization 10 2.3 Policy Framework in China 12 2.4 Internationalization Theories 13 2.4.1 International Market Selection 13 2.4.2 Market Challenges faced by International Retailers 14 2.4.3 Foreign Market Entry Modes 16 2.4.4 Theories Governing Market Entry Mode Decision 19 2.4.5 The Uppsala Stage Theory of Internationalization 21

John Sutter and the Western United States Essay Example for Free

John Sutter and the Western United States Essay During the mid-1800s, people were eager to explore most of the United States in search for a better place to live in. Those who came from Europe settled in most parts of the Eastern United States. But there are those who ventured further, going deeper into the West. One of them is John Sutter, born in Germany and of Swiss descent. He became a captain of the Swiss Army, and was driven away from his family because of debts, going to the United States to look for a greener pasture. According to Albert Hurtado in his book, John Sutter: a Life on the North American Frontier, John Sutter deserves to have a title of an entrepreneur. All his achievements were the product of his hard work and entrepreneurship (Hurtado). He roamed the United States by using these characteristics to earn enough money to fund his ventures. The Eastern part of the United States at that time were already populated, where trade and commerce is flourishing all over the place. He joined a trading venture to New Mexico, where he was successful enough, returning with wine, several mules and money. When he celebrated the Independence Day of 1839 in Monterey California, he met Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado. This meeting paved the way for a settlement grant of more than 48,000 acres of land for Sutter, the start of the monumental â€Å"New Helvetia Settlement† which pioneered American life in the Western United States. One of the few requirements for John Sutter to be awarded the land grant was to become a citizen of Mexico. This would give him thousands of acres of land where he can establish a pioneering settlement. In less than a year after becoming a Mexican citizen, he was awarded the vast lands in the central valley of California. In order to properly run this vast acreage of agricultural lands, he employed various Native Americans, as well as welcomed immigrants from different places. John Sutter’s Fort became a famous stop-over for those wishing to venture into new lands. With this account from Albert Hurtado’s book, we can see that the Western part of the United States at John Sutter’s time promises new beginnings to those who wish for a different life. The East was somehow been congested with various people migrating from other nearby countries. Because of this, some wanted, and even dared to explore other parts of the â€Å"foreign land† they have settled in. But not all parts of the west are conducive for living. In the account of John Bidwell, he describes most of the west especially California as â€Å"the country was brown and parched; throughout the State wheat, beans, everything had failed†¦cattle were almost starving for grass, and the people, except perhaps a few of the best families, were without bread, and were eating chiefly meat, and that often of a very poor quality† (Bidwell). This means that the west may promise a good life, but there are also risks in living there. It is still an uncharted territory for the migrants, and that they were all going to start from scratch. They have no clear idea on how to handle things at first, especially because they did not originate in the area. However, it is also filled with resources just waiting to be exploited. According to Bidwell, the place also has some good points, â€Å"there were no other settlements in the valley; it was, apparently, still just as new as when Columbus discovered America, and roaming over it were countless thousands of wild horses, of elk, and of antelope† (Bidwell). The Western part of the United States was truly a place of uncertainty, wherein you’ll have to risk everything if you choose to settle in the area. John Sutter was able to survive and was successful in establishing a settlement in the area. In a sense, we could say that Sutter was successful in taming the Wild West. Sutter’s Fort housed a number of people ranging from natives to settlers, even those who were lost in their way, and these people contributed well enough in cultivating the vast lands of the settlement. In a few years time, John Sutter became a major supplier of horses, cattle, and wheat (Doti). The Western United States became a melting pot of different cultures. These cultures blended well with each other despite of their differences. This is essential for the success of the settlement, where everyone has to do their part in order for their efforts to flourish. John Sutter bridged the gap between the settlers, the natives and even the bordering Mexicans. Sutter’s works not only gave rise to a new settlement, but also to a new world found in the West. This is a very important contribution in the history of the nation, as it expanded the country’s influence across the borders. The culture in the Eastern United States at that time was generally influenced by the countries which they came from. Most these are European countries that are why they have developed mixtures of various European cultures. On the other hand, the Western United States is not only a mixture of European cultures, but also accompanied by various customs of the Native Americans and the bordering Mexican culture. This diversity has proven great importance in the formation of the Western United States, because western settlements were the products of various cultures cooperating with each other in so that they would achieve peace and order in their respective communities. Works Cited: Bidwell, John. Life in California before the Gold Discovery. 1890. The Century Magazine. November 19 2007. http://www. sfmuseum. org/hist2/bidwell1. html. Doti, Lynne Pierson. John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier Book Reviews. 2006. Chapman University. November 19 2007. http://eh. net/bookreviews/library/1116. Hurtado, Albert L. John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier. 1st edition ed: University of Oklahoma Press, 2006.

Microprocessor Based Control of Traffic Lights

Microprocessor Based Control of Traffic Lights Abstract: Due to suitable control measures strategies which can be countered traffic congestion in urban road freeway networks leads to degrades the network infrastructure accordingly reduced throughput. Due to traffic congestion defining the main reasons for infrastructure deterioration is defined, overview of implemented proposed control strategies is provided for these areas: urban road networks, freeway networks, route guidance. The impact of various control actions strategies are illustrated briefly Selected application results, obtained from either simulation studies or field implementations. Microprocessor based control of traffic light are programmed for automatically run and change their alternatively light automatically. The microprocessor connected to different electronics devices i.e. traffic light controller, a video camera, an electronic display board, compression circuit an I/O interface, a traffic flow detector connected to the central traffic control computer through t he DSL. DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Loop. A traffic light control information transmission device both are compromised by a microprocessor on the cross road. DLS is used for send the information about the public or news of the central traffic control computer. The control signals, traffic, public information or can go through the DLS to the microprocessor. The microprocessor can control the traffic light display all the information on the electronic display board. An electronic display board is used for displaying the information that was send by DSP. The traffic flow data of the cross roads can be accessed by the traffic flow detector the video camera transmitted back to the central traffic control computer. Introduction Old system works on trigger mechanism. But today many traffic light systems operate on the timing mechanism. Timing mechanism changes the light after a fixed intervals of time. In an intersection of roads the invention that is mainly used to control traffic lights relates to an intelligent traffic light control system. Traffic signal systems will need to address many issues in the next millennium, spanning a broad range of technical, social, political boundaries. The presence or absence of vehicles within certain range is sensed by the system developed by setting the appropriate duration for the traffic signals to react accordingly. An intelligent traffic light system senses the presence or absence of vehicles reacts accordingly due to that conditions. A manual input device, an enforced switching device an intelligent detecting device the invention relates to an intelligent traffic light control system comprising a microprocessor, these three devices are responsible wherein the mi croprocessor is used for controlling traffic lights. The idea behind intelligent traffic systems is that drivers will not spend unnecessary time waiting for the traffic lights to change. The system to achieve a periodic switching the status of on/off of a traffic light is controlled through a microprocessor. An intelligent traffic system detects traffic in many different way. Trigger mechanism is responsible for older system that means older system are works on this mechanism. for inputting control parameters of traffic light to the microprocessor the manual input device is used, for carrying a preferentially direct operation the enforced switching device is use. The enforced switching device are also used for the direct control of traffic light. Current traffic systems react to motion to trigger the light changes. Once the infrared object detector picks up the presence of a car, a switch causes the lights to change. We need to understate the function of traffic signals so that we can improve driving habits by controlling the speed in order to reduce the number of associated traffic accidents. To reduce the waiting time of each lane of the cars also to maximize the total number of cars that can cross an intersection the Intelligent Traffic Signal Simulator is designed and developed. The control parameters cannot be automatically adjusted by the system according to traffic flows in each direction this is the shortcoming of prior technique. The more number of drivers who know about the operation of traffic signals, the less frustrated they are going to be while waiting for the lights to change. They have less frustration while waiting for traffic lights It means that the traffic control in an intersection of roads will be not in a best state at all times. The Traffic Signal System Consists Of Three Important Parts. The first part is the controller or we can say that the brain of the traffic system. The selection timing of traffic movements in accordance to the varying demands of traffic signal that controls by a computer controls as registered to the controller unit by sensors. The second part is the signal visualization or in another words it is signal face. Controlling traffic in a single direction consist of one or more signal sections are provided by Signal faces which are part of a signal head. These usually comprise of solid red, yellow, green lights. The third part is the detector or sensor. Presence of vehicles is indicated by the sensor or detector. One of the technologies, which are used today, in the pavement at intersections wire loops are placed. Electrical inductance caused by a vehicle passing over or standing over the wire loop is change therefore they are activated Their Demand With the increase in urbanization to operate our roadway systems with maximum efficiency traffic congestion comes a greater demand. New technology, such as traffic-responsive closed loop systems or adaptive traffic signal systems using advanced surveillance traffic management centers, will become increasingly critical for city, county, state, organizations to meet transportation needs. Emergence Of Microprocessor-Based Traffic Signal Control In early 1960s computers were introduced to traffic signal systems. The first computerized traffic signal control system was installed in Canada in 1963. Hardware software standardization efforts were first initiated In 1970s, when microprocessors are common , the developments progressed at a relatively modest pace. The philosophy that controllers would provide a basic set of features standard connectors the National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) TS1 standard was based . The concept of the new platform was that traffic signal controllers should not be based on static technology (like the Model170 specification) but on widely used commercial standards, allowing new technology to be adopted rapidly Technical Challenges Traffic signal research has been conducted in two distinct areas: roadside equipment analytical-type operations research. The research on roadside equipment has performed by the Government agencies vendors virtually. Similarly, the research in analytical-type operations are performed virtually. The roadside equipment analytical models although significant advancements have been made, neither area has been particularly closely coordinated with the other. Many of the following research issues fall outside the typical DOT, commercial, university organizational structure, but they show considerable promise for improving the operation of traffic signal systems. System Integration Research Due to past research, government agencies vendors in considered isolation have perfected systems that do an excellent job of meeting todays needs, but do not provide the building blocks for cost-effectively implementing integrated systems manufactured by a variety of vendors. It means that the system manufactured by the vendors do not get the basic building block from the government. Similarly, because many of the assumptions made by the universities developing the models do not reflect the technical limitations or traffic engineering conventions imposed by modern controllers many of the promising control algorithms proposed over the years have never been implemented. Advanced Transportation Controller Adaptive controller adjust time or re-time every 30 sec. A computer is used to control an operation by monitoring readings from sensors sending control signals when necessary. The concept of an ATC was initiated in 1989. Caltrans prepared a report documenting some of the deficiencies of the Model 170 controller recommended a 3U VME-based platform using OS-9 (12). The concept of the new platform was that traffic signal controllers should not be based on static technology (like the Model170 specification) but on widely used commercial standards, allowing new technology to be adopted rapidly. The initial specification developed by Caltrans was called the Model 2070. Ideally, new technology would be incorporated into the Model 2070 traffic signal controller at a rate similar to that observed in the desktop computing market. As interest in the standard development effort broadened, more public agencies began participating, an ATC standard emerged that is even less dependent on the proc essor operating system than the Model 2070. Process control means automatic control of an industrial process†¦ Characteristics of process control sensors are main part of the traffic light based on the microprocessor .It is a real-time operation input from sensors is processed It is an example of the use of feedback if it is out of balance the sensor input is used to adjust the process control signals are sent back almost immediately. the timing of each part of the process and the computer usually controls the supply of materials Some more sophisticated systems allow for learning to take place. The computer remembers how the best results were obtained attempts to reproduce those results Sensors Sensors are the main part of any traffic signal system, yet are viewed by many as the weakest link in developing better traffic control systems. Sensing needs include so many detection train detection, nonferrous bicycle detection, emergency vehicle detection, transit vehicle detection, pedestrian detection, vehicle detection and queue estimation. Reliability must increase costs decrease to facilitate widespread use not only must new sensing technology be developed. Furthermore, standards need to emerge for integrating these sensors into traffic signal systems. The standard practice for bringing any sensor information into a traffic signal controller is via discrete logic (contact open/contact closed), which is limiting needs to improve. Summary Of The Invention In order to overcome above shortcomings of the prior technique, the invention provides an intelligent traffic light control system. The control system can automatically adjust the traffic light control parameters according to the changes of traffic flow in different directions, thereby increasing the traffic efficiency of intersection of roads achieving a best control for traffic. The technical solution of the invention is that: an intelligent traffic light control system comprises a microprocessor, a manual input device, an enforced switching device an intelligent detecting device, wherein the microprocessor is used for controlling traffic lights, the manual input device is used for inputting control parameters of traffic light to the microprocessor, the enforced switching device is used for carrying out a preferentially direct operation, the intelligent detecting device includes one or more panoramic cameras an intelligent controller, wherein the one or more panoramic cameras are used for capturing real-time traffic flow images of each direction, the intelligent is used for receiving the real-time traffic flow images of each direction through a video capture board, identifying vehicles on each lane of each road, identifying status of driving stopping of each vehicle, counting the length of queue of vehicles in each lane from the status of driving stoppin g of each vehicle sending an instruction for modifying traffic light control parameters to the microprocessor according to a preset program. The microprocessor modifies the traffic light control parameters after receiving the instruction. Provided with an intelligent detecting device, this system can estimate the jamming condition of each road according to the length of queue of driving or stopping vehicles on each road, make a best control mode using a preset program by adjusting switching order switching time of traffic lights to adapt to the actual traffic condition, thereby increasing traffic efficiency of an intersection of roads, reducing traffic jam of each road in each direction. That is beneficial to the normal traffic on roads, in particular to morning peak evening peak of traffic, as the main flow directions of the mass vehicles in morning peak evening peak are different. Provided with one or more panoramic cameras, the intelligent detecting device can effectively ca pture images of traffic jam condition in each direction, thereby simplifying the device ensuring the control effect at the same time. It is therefore a primary object of the invention to provide a traffic light control information transmission device that applies the existing broadb network to transmit data between the central traffic control computer the microprocessors of the cross roads to avoid the installation of the cables save the construction cost. In order to achieve the objective set forth, a traffic light control information transmission device in accordance with the present invention comprises a microprocessor on the cross road, the microprocessor further connects to a traffic light controller, an electronic display board, a video camera, a compression circuitry, an I/O interface, a traffic flow detector connected to the central traffic control computer through the DSL (Digital Subscriber Loop). The control signals, traffic, public information or news of the central traffic control computer can go through the DSL to the microprocessor; the microprocessor can control the traffic light display all the information on the electronic display board. The traffic flow data of the cross roads can be accessed by the traffic flow detector the video camera transmitted back to the central traffic control computer. Application Of Traffic Models Many modeling procedures techniques have been tried over the years have achieved varying levels of acceptance use. These models can be classified as macroscopic or microscopic. Macroscopic models are based on average flow rates average signal timings. They are particularly useful for signal system timing design software because they provide efficient procedures for formulating objective functions used in optimization logic. In the past decade, many of the macroscopic models have incorporated more detail to account for actuated signals coordination between them. However, these macroscopic models only provide analytical estimates of average system performance do not provide insight into the actual signal system operation, particularly during non steady-state conditions such as emergency preemption or timing plan transitions. Microscopic models are based on car-following theory cycle-by-cycle signal times. These models have significant potential to evaluate visualize alternative control concepts for traffic signal systems because they consider the car-following dynamics of traffic streams they can model many of the characteristics of advanced systems such as coordinated actuated controllers. These microscopic simulation procedures can be used to analyze tune coordinated-actuated systems directly, because they consider a majority of the parameters used in modern, coordinated-actuate signal systems. However, microscopic models. Traffic Control Concepts Traffic control concepts for isolated intersections basically fall into two basic categories: 1. Pre-Timed Signal Control Under these conditions, the signal assigns right-of-way at an intersection according to a predetermined schedule. The sequence of right-of-way (phases), the length of the time interval for each signal indication in the cycle is fixed, based on historic traffic patterns. No recognition is given to the current traffic demand on the intersection approaches unless detectors are used. The major elements of pre-timed control are fixed cycle length, fixed phase length, number sequence of phases 2. Traffic-Actuated Signal Control Traffic-actuated control of isolated intersections attempts to adjust green time continuously, , in some cases, the sequence of phasing. These adjustments occur in accordance with real-time measures of traffic demand obtained from vehicle detectors placed on one or more of the approaches to the intersection. The full range of actuated control capabilities depends on the type of equipment employed the operational requirements. Conclusion An intelligent traffic light system had successfully been designed developed. Increasing the number of sensors to detect the presence of vehicles can further enhance the design of the traffic light system. Another room of improvement is to have the infrared sensors replaced with an imaging system/camera system so that it has a wide range of detection capabilities, which can be enhanced ventured into a perfect traffic system.

Fire! :: essays research papers

I remember the night all too well. It was an August evening and my parents left my younger brother Steve and I home alone as the rest of my family went to one of my younger sister, April’s, softball games. They left the two of us together thinking that they could trust us since I was the ‘older brother’ and that I’m going to be a senior in high school. I guess that eventually proved to be quite the mistake.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As I recall it, Steve and I became bored after watching a few minutes of television. Our cable was disconnected the week earlier, and so the only channels we received weren’t too exciting for teenage boys. Out of desperation, Steve begged me to find something for us to do. I decided that since it was still pretty nice outside, we could go out and create a little fun of our own. And that is exactly what happened†¦ We grabbed the barbeque lighter and began circling our house and driveway looking for flammable objects. Since I was the one in charge, of course I was a little nervous, but I knew, or at least I hoped I knew, that Steve had an idea of what he was doing.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Paper, leaves, and an occasional cat got pretty monotonous, so I told Steve that we should just head back into the house. Now please take note that Steven thrives on attention, and albeit he’s not the brightest crayon in the box, he loves to have people around to laugh and joke with as he attempts his insane adventures. So he suggested that we move onto bigger and better things, promising me that it would be well worth my time. I got a bit curious as to what he had planned, so I went along just for kicks. Besides, how bad could it really be?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Pleased that I was joining him, Steve grabbed a can of bug spray that was lying on our back deck. He also asked me to run into the garage and grab as many aerosol cans as I could find. All that I could gather was a can of Lysol, Raid and a half-empty can of wasp-repellent. I wasn’t exactly feeling too good about this, but Steve assured me that because of scouts, he was a professional pyromaniac. I was as curious as ever by now, and so I was concentrating on his every move.

Initiative Essay -- Education Educational Papers

Initiative The aftermath of Proposition 227, formally titled the English Language for Immigrant Children Initiative, is as varied as the bilingual teaching methods it replaces. The issue of how to educate limited English proficient (or LEP) children has become so politicized that the research on the subject is difficult to interpret. However, two aspects that appear to be problematic for all of California’s school districts are the vague language of the initiative (which is now law), and the lack of methodology for the new "sheltered immersion" programs. The resulting confusion has created a bilingual education system more fragmented than ever. According to the state Department of Education, approximately 1.4 of the 5.5 million school children in the United States are classified as LEP. Of those 1.4 million children, eighty percent are Spanish speaking and the remainder identify fifty-three other languages as their primary language (Prop #227 1). Prior to the passage of proposition 227, 70 percent of California’s LEP students received instruction primarily in English, including 31 percent who received specialized instruction in English only, 22 percent received specialized instruction in English with some primary language support, and 17 percent receive no specialized services: The remaining 30 percent were in traditional bilingual classrooms and received a great deal of instruction in their primary languages (Prop #227 1). It is clear from the variety of services that had been offered (or not) that "bilingual education" varied greatly in the amount of primary language support that was used. It was also only used to teach approximately 50 percent of the LED student population. The amount of primary language support is t... ...ll Kemper. "Sheltered Immersion: Contrasts and Controversy". 1-4. Online. Internet. November 14,1998. Available http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/pages/seivcanadian.html. "Proposition #227: English Language in Public Schools". 1-9. Online. internet. November 15,1998. Available http://www.sen.cagov/ftp/sen/sor/_home/educate/prop227.htm. Puente, Maria, Carol Morello. "Bilingual Battle Still Rages In Classroom". USA Today. November 13,1998: News; 4A. Online. Internet. November 15,1998. Available http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/doc...23&md5=84077f81fr06bb22396cd3alf8be5ed8. Ramirez, Jaime. Telephone interview. December 1,1998. Terry, Don. "Bilingual Education Lives After All". New York Times. October 3, 1998: Section A; 7. Online. Internet. November 7,1998. Available http://web.lexis- nexis.com/universe/doc...ae&_md5=11a5d46e28d2958c8088df8df8267172c64.

Human sexuality Essay

Incestuous inbreeding is the act of mating or having any sexual relations between two beings of close kinship. In people, this is prohibited by law to marry and engage in any sexual activity with any member of a person’s own family and with his/her relatives up to the second degree of consanguinity. Aside from it being a legal prohibition, it is also a considered a social taboo in most cultures. However, the considerations for incest are different depending on the beliefs and customs of these cultural groups. Some have more liberal qualifications for the situation to be called incest, and others are more conservative in the sense that people could not marry even those who are adopted into the family. Nevertheless, there are also some places wherein they permit this kind of familial setup to preserve their royal lineage. There are various kinds and forms of incest. The most common and considered a kind of abuse is the father-daughter incest and other forms of parental incest. However, there are also other forms such as sibling incest and other matches which usually come unreported. Although most cases of incest are born out of coercion, consensual incest also exists in some societies. The rationale behind the incest taboo must have stemmed from social group processes in ancient civilized and uncivilized societies. As studied by anthropologists, older cultures follow the rule of exogamy which enables families and groups to merge with others to form alliances. If incest was allowed, this rule would be violated. Religious groups and sects also have their various takes on this issue and most of them push that incest must not be tolerated and patronized. In modern societies, this legal prohibition now has scientific basis. It was found that since the two people involved in incestuous inbreeding have the same genetic makeup, their offspring would contract inherited congenital malformations. In the event that this becomes the result, future generations would be at risk of catching the same genetic defects. As a product of incestuous inbreeding, an offspring has a tendency to develop recessive disorders such as mental retardation, deaf-mutism, congenital ichthyosis, retinitis pigmentosa, adiposogenital syndrome, and homocystinuria. Previous studies show that more than half of the children born out of incest acquire some abnormality. The reason behind this is that there in an increase in homozygosity in the offspring’s genes, which means that there would be â€Å"the same allele at the same locus on both members of a chromosome pair† (â€Å"Incest,† n. d. ). In other words, if the parents of the child belong to the same family, there is a greater tendency for the child to get a defective gene from both parents. Because of this, it is assumed that there is a specific biological mechanism which prevents species from engaging in incestuous inbreeding. In detail, this mechanism could be more easily described in a comparison between incestuous inbreeding and mating between beings of different blood. Every human being carries some defective genes which are masked in a recessive expression. When two people belong in the same family, for example, as in the case of siblings, half of their genes are identical as they are from the same parents. This means that when they mate, there is a greater likelihood that the defective gene would be expressed in their offspring. However, for two people of no blood relation to each other, there isn’t any identical gene which means that it would be less likely for a genetic defect to be developed in their offspring. This biological constraint and medical risk is a consequence that incestuous inbreeding would bring. It would not only be harmful for the offspring because of the defects that would be acquired or a greater risk for mortality, nonetheless, it would also contribute to the deterioration of future generations. Finally, aside from these aforementioned medical considerations, it would also be appropriate to regard the psychological side effects as important in these situations. There are lots of cases which show that incest, especially those situations which could be considered as forms of abuse, result in psychological, mental, and emotional trauma. This probably might be because of the fact that it is established as a taboo and the behavior is a contradiction to that belief or attitude. Whatever the case may be, there would always be a negative outcome when two people engage in incestuous relations and inbreeding. References Children born as a result of incest. (1981). British Medical Journal Vol. 282. p. 250. Incest. (n. d. ) In Cambridge encyclopedia. Retrieved April 14, 2008, from http://encyclopedia. stateuniversity. com/pages/10516/incest. html The Columbia encyclopedia (10th ed. ). (2007). New York: Columbia University Press.